In or about the year 570 the child who would be named Muhammad and who would become the Prophet of one of the world’s great religions, Islam, was born into a family belonging to a clan of Quraish, the ruling tribe of Mecca, a city in the Hijaz region of northwestern Arabia.
Originally the site of the Kaabah, a shrine of ancient origins, Mecca had, with the decline of southern Arabia, become an important center of sixth-century trade with such powers as the Sassanians, Byzantines, and Ethiopians. As a result, the city was dominated by powerful merchant families, among whom the men of Quraish were preeminent.
Muhammad’s father, “Abd Allah ibn” Abd al-Muttalib, died before the boy was born; his mother, Aminah, died when he was six. The orphan was consigned to the care of his grandfather, the head of the clan of Hashim. After the death of his grandfather, Muhammad was raised by his uncle, Abu Talib. As was customary, the child Muhammad was sent to live for a year or two with a Bedouin family. This custom, followed until recently by noble families of Mecca, Medina, Taif, and other towns of the Hijaz, had important implications for Muhammad. In addition to enduring the hardships of desert life, he acquired a taste for the rich language so loved by the Arabs, whose speech was their proudest art, and also learned the patience and forbearance of the herdsmen, whose life of solitude he first shared, and then came to understand and appreciate.
About the year 590, Muhammad, then in his twenties, entered the service of a merchant widow named Khadijah as her factor, actively engaged with trading caravans to the north. Sometime later he married her, and had two sons, neither of whom survived, and four daughters by her.
In his forties, he began to retire to meditate in a cave on Mount Hira, just outside Mecca, where the first of the great events of Islam took place. One day, as he was sitting in the cave, he heard a voice, later identified as that of the Angel Gabriel, which ordered him to:
“Recite: In the name of thy Lord who created, Created man from a clot of blood.” (Quran 96:1-2)
Three times Muhammad pleaded his inability to do so, but each time the command was repeated. Finally, Muhammad recited the words of what are now the first five verses of the 96th chapter of the Quran - words which proclaim God to be the Creator of man and the Source of all knowledge.
At first Muhammad divulged his experience only to his wife and his immediate circle. But, as more revelations enjoined him to proclaim the oneness of God universally, his following grew, at first among the poor and the slaves, but later, also among the most prominent men of Mecca. The revelations he received at this time, and those he did later, are all incorporated in the Quran, the Scripture of Islam.
Not everyone accepted God’s message transmitted through Muhammad. Even in his own clan, there were those who rejected his teachings, and many merchants actively opposed the message. The opposition, however, merely served to sharpen Muhammad’s sense of mission, and his understanding of exactly how Islam differed from paganism. The belief in the Oneness of God was paramount in Islam; from this all else follows. The verses of the Quran stress God’s uniqueness, warn those who deny it of impending punishment, and proclaim His unbounded compassion to those who submit to His will. They affirm the Last Judgment, when God, the Judge, will weigh in the balance the faith and works of each man, rewarding the faithful and punishing the transgressor. Because the Quran rejected polytheism and emphasized man’s moral responsibility, in powerful images, it presented a grave challenge to the worldly Meccans.
After Muhammad had preached publicly for more than a decade, the opposition to him reached such a high pitch that, fearful for their safety, he sent some of his adherents to Ethiopia. There, the Christian ruler extended protection to them, the memory of which has been cherished by Muslims ever since. But in Mecca the persecution worsened. Muhammad’s followers were harassed, abused, and even tortured. At last, seventy of Muhammad’s followers set off by his orders to the northern town of Yathrib, in the hope of establishing a news stage of the Islamic movement. This city which was later to be renamed Medina (“The City”). Later, in the early fall of 622, he, with his closest friend, Abu Bakr al-Siddeeq, set off to join the emigrants. This event coincided with the leaders in Mecca plotting, to kill him.
In Mecca, the plotters arrived at Muhammad’s home to find that his cousin, ‘Ali, had taken his place in bed. Enraged, the Meccans set a price on Muhammad’s head and set off in pursuit. Muhammad and Abu Bakr, however, had taken refuge in a cave, where they hid from their pursuers. By the protection of God, the Meccans passed by the cave without noticing it, and Muhammad and Abu Bakr proceeded to Medina. There, they were joyously welcomed by a throng of Medinans, as well as the Meccans who had gone ahead to prepare the way.
This was the Hijrah - anglicized as Hegira - usually, but inaccurately, translated as “Flight” - from which the Muslim era is dated. In fact, the Hijrah was not a flight, but a carefully planned migration that marks not only a break in history - the beginning of the Islamic era - but also, for Muhammad and the Muslims, a new way of life. Henceforth, the organizational principle of the community was not to be mere blood kinship, but the greater brotherhood of all Muslims. The men who accompanied Muhammad on the Hijrah were called the Muhajiroon - “those that made the Hijrah” or the “Emigrants” - while those in Medina who became Muslims were called the Ansar, or “Helpers.”
Muhammad was well acquainted with the situation in Medina. Earlier, before the Hijrah, various of its inhabitants came to Mecca to offer the annual pilgrimage, and as the Prophet would take this opportunity to call visiting pilgrims to Islam, the group who came from Medina heard his call and accepted Islam.. They also invited Muhammad to settle in Medina. After the Hijrah, Muhammad’s exceptional qualities so impressed the Medinans that the rival tribes and their allies temporarily closed ranks as, on March 15, 624, Muhammad and his supporters moved against the pagans of Mecca.
The first battle, which took place near Badr, now a small town southwest of Medina, had several important effects. In the first place, the Muslim forces, outnumbered three to one, routed the Meccans. Secondly, the discipline displayed by the Muslims brought home to the Meccans, perhaps for the first time, the abilities of the man they had driven from their city. Thirdly, one of the allied tribes which had pledged support to the Muslims in the Battle of Badr, but had then proved lukewarm when the fighting started, was expelled from Medina one month after the battle. Those who claimed to be allies of the Muslims, but tacitly opposed them, were thus served warning: membership in the community imposed the obligation of total support.
A year later the Meccans struck back. Assembling an army of three thousand men, they met the Muslims at Uhud, a ridge outside Medina. After initial successes, the Muslims were driven back and the Prophet himself was wounded. As the Muslims were not completely defeated, the Meccans, with an army of ten thousand, attacked Medina again two years later but with quite different results. At the Battle of the Trench, also known as the Battle of the Confederates, the Muslims scored a signal victory by introducing a new form of defense. On the side of Medina from which attack was expected, they dug a trench too deep for the Meccan cavalry to clear without exposing itself to the archers posted behind earthworks on the Medina side. After an inconclusive siege, the Meccans were forced to retire. Thereafter Medina was entirely in the hands of the Muslims.
The Constitution of Medina - under which the clans accepting Muhammad as the Prophet of God formed an alliance, or federation - dates from this period. It showed that the political consciousness of the Muslim community had reached an important point; its members defined themselves as a community separate from all others. The Constitution also defined the role of non-Muslims in the community. Jews, for example, were part of the community; they were dhimmis, that is, protected people, as long as they conformed to its laws. This established a precedent for the treatment of subject peoples during the later conquests. Christians and Jews, upon payment of a nominal tax, were allowed religious freedom and, while maintaining their status as non-Muslims, were associate members of the Muslim state. This status did not apply to polytheists, who could not be tolerated within a community that worshipped the One God.
Ibn Ishaq, one of the earliest biographers of the Prophet, says it was at about this time that Muhammad sent letters to the rulers of the earth - the King of Persia, the Emperor of Byzantium, the Negus of Abyssinia, and the Governor of Egypt among others - inviting them to submit to Islam. Nothing more fully illustrates the confidence of the small community, as its military power, despite the battle of the Trench, was still negligible. But its confidence was not misplaced. Muhammad so effectively built up a series of alliances among the tribes that, by 628, he and fifteen hundred followers were able to demand access to the Kaaba. This was a milestone in the history of the Muslims. Just a short time before, Muhammad left the city of his birth to establish an Islamic state in Medina. Now he was being treated by his former enemies as a leader in his own right. A year later, in 629, he reentered and, in effect, conquered Mecca, without bloodshed and in a spirit of tolerance, which established an ideal for future conquests. He also destroyed the idols in the Kaabah, to put an end forever to pagan practices there. At the same time ‘Amr ibn al-’As, the future conqueror of Egypt, and Khalid ibn al-Walid, the future “Sword of God,” accepted Islam, and swore allegiance to Muhammad. Their conversion was especially noteworthy because these men had been among Muhammad’s bitterest opponents only a short time before.
In one sense Muhammad’s return to Mecca was the climax of his mission. In 632, just three years later, he was suddenly taken ill and on June 8 of that year, with his third wife Aisha in attendance, the Messenger of God “died with the heat of noon.”
The death of Muhammad was a profound loss. To his followers this simple man from Mecca was far more than a beloved friend, far more than a gifted administrator, far more than the revered leader who had forged a new state from clusters of warring tribes. Muhammad was also the exemplar of the teachings he had brought them from God: the teachings of the Quran, which, for centuries, have guided the thought and action, the faith and conduct, of innumerable men and women, and which ushered in a distinctive era in the history of mankind. His death, nevertheless, had little effect on the dynamic society he had created in Arabia, and no effect at all on his central mission: to transmit the Quran to the world. As Abu Bakr put it: “Whoever worshipped Muhammad, let him know that Muhammad is dead, but whoever worshipped God, let him know that God lives and dies not.”
With the death of Muhammad, the Muslim community was faced with the problem of succession. Who would be its leader? There were four persons obviously marked for leadership: Abu Bakr al-Siddeeq, who had not only accompanied Muhammad to Medina ten years before, but had been appointed to take the place of the Prophet as leader of public prayer during Muhammad’s last illness; Umar ibn al-Khattab, an able and trusted Companion of the Prophet; Uthman ibn ‘Affan, a respected early convert; and ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law. There piousness and ability to govern the affairs of the Islamic nation was uniformly par excellence. At a meeting held to decide the new leadership, Umar grasped Abu Bakr’s hand and gave his allegiance to him, the traditional sign of recognition of a new leader. By dusk, everyone concurred, and Abu Bakr had been recognized as the khaleefah of Muhammad. Khaleefah - anglicized as caliph - is a word meaning “successor”, but also suggesting what his historical role would be: to govern according to the Quran and the practice of the Prophet.
Abu Bakr’s caliphate was short, but important. An exemplary leader, he lived simply, assiduously fulfilled his religious obligations, and was accessible and sympathetic to his people. But he also stood firm when some tribes, who had only nominally accepted Islam, renounced it in the wake of the Prophet’s death. In what was a major accomplishment, Abu Bakr swiftly disciplined them. Later, he consolidated the support of the tribes within the Arabian Peninsula and subsequently funneled their energies against the powerful empires of the East: the Sassanians in Persia and the Byzantines in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. In short, he demonstrated the viability of the Muslim state.
The second caliph, Umar - appointed by Abu Bakr - continued to demonstrate that viability. Adopting the title Ameer al-Mumineen, or Commander of the Believers, Umar extended Islam’s temporal rule over Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Persia in what, from a purely military standpoint, were astonishing victories. Within four years after the death of the Prophet, the Muslim state had extended its sway over all of Syria and had, at a famous battle fought during a sandstorm near the River Yarmuk, blunted the power of the Byzantines - whose ruler, Heraclius, had shortly before refused the call to accept Islam.
Even more astonishingly, the Muslim state administered the conquered territories with a tolerance almost unheard of in that age. At Damascus, for example, the Muslim leader, Khalid ibn al-Walid, signed a treaty which read as follows:
This is what Khalid ibn al-Walid would grant to the inhabitants of Damascus if he enters therein: he promises to give them security for their lives, property and churches. Their city wall shall not be demolished; neither shall any Muslim be quartered in their houses. Thereunto we give them the pact of God and the protection of His Prophet, the caliphs and the believers. So long as they pay the poll tax, nothing but good shall befall them.
This tolerance was typical of Islam. A year after Yarmook, Umar, in the military camp of al-Jabiyah on the Golan Heights, received word that the Byzantines were ready to surrender Jerusalem. Consequently, he rode there to accept the surrender in person. According to one account, he entered the city alone and clad in a simple cloak, astounding a populace accustomed to the sumptuous garb and court ceremonials of the Byzantines and Persians. He astounded them still further when he set their fears at rest by negotiating a generous treaty in which he told them: “In the name of God ... you have complete security for your churches, which shall not be occupied by the Muslims or destroyed.”
This policy was to prove successful everywhere. In Syria, for example, many Christians who had been involved in bitter theological disputes with Byzantine authorities - and persecuted for it - welcomed the coming of Islam as an end to tyranny. And in Egypt, which Amr ibn al-As took from the Byzantines after a daring march across the Sinai Peninsula, the Coptic Christians not only welcomed the Arabs, but enthusiastically assisted them.
This pattern was repeated throughout the Byzantine Empire. Conflict among Greek Orthodox, Syrian Monophysites, Copts, and Nestorian Christians contributed to the failure of the Byzantines - always regarded as intruders - to develop popular support, while the tolerance which Muslims showed toward Christians and Jews removed the primary cause for opposing them.
Umar adopted this attitude in administrative matters as well. Although he assigned Muslim governors to the new provinces, existing Byzantine and Persian administrations were retained wherever possible. For fifty years, in fact, Greek remained the chancery language of Syria, Egypt, and Palestine, while Pahlavi, the chancery language of the Sassanians, continued to be used in Mesopotamia and Persia.
Umar, who served as caliph for ten years, ended his rule with a significant victory over the Persian Empire. The struggle with the Sassanid realm had opened in 636 at al-Qadisiyah, near Ctesiphon in Iraq, where Muslim cavalry had successfully coped with elephants used by the Persians as a kind of primitive tank. Now with the Battle of Nihavand, called the “Conquest of Conquests,” Umar sealed the fate of Persia; henceforth it was to be one of the most important provinces in the Muslim Empire.
His caliphate was a high point in early Islamic history. He was noted for his justice, social ideals, administration, and statesmanship. His innovations left an all enduring imprint on social welfare, taxation, and the financial and administrative fabric of the growing empire.
Umar ibn Al-Khattab, the second caliph of Islam, was stabbed by a Persian slave Abu Lu’lu’ah, a Persian Magian, while leading the Fajr Prayer. As Umar was lying on his death bed, the people around him asked him to appoint a successor. Umar appointed a committee of six people to choose the next caliph from among themselves.
This committee comprised Ali ibn Abi Talib, Uthman ibn Affan, Abdur-Rahman ibn Awf, Sad ibn Abi Waqqas, Az-Zubayr ibn Al-Awam, and Talhah ibn Ubayd Allah, who were among the most eminent Companions of the Prophet, may God send His praises upon him, and who had received in their lifetime the tidings of Paradise.
The instructions of Umar were that the Election Committee should choose the successor within three days, and he should assume office on the fourth day. As two days passed by without a decision, the members felt anxious that the time was running out fast, and still no solution to the problem appeared to be in sight. Abdur-Rahman ibn Awf offered to forgo his own claim if others agreed to abide by his decision. All agreed to let Abdur-Rahman choose the new caliph. He interviewed each nominee and went about Medinah asking the people for their choice. He finally selected Uthman as the new caliph, as the majority of the people chose him.
His Life as a Caliph
Uthman led a simple life even after becoming the leader of the Islamic state. It would have been easy for a successful businessman such as him to lead a luxurious life, but he never aimed at leading such in this world. His only aim was to taste the pleasure of the hereafter, as he knew that this world is a test and temporary. Uthman’s generosity continued after he became caliph.
The caliphs were paid for their services from the treasury, but Uthman never took any salary for his service to Islam. Not only this, he also developed a custom to free slaves every Friday, look after widows and orphans, and give unlimited charity. His patience and endurance were among the characteristics that made him a successful leader.
Uthman achieved much during his reign. He pushed forward with the pacification of Persia, continued to defend the Muslim state against the Byzantines, added what is now Libya to the empire, and subjugated most of Armenia. Uthman also, through his cousin Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria, established an Arab navy which fought a series of important engagements with the Byzantines.
Of much greater importance to Islam, however, was Uthman's compilation of the text of the Quran as revealed to the Prophet. Realizing that the original message from God might be inadvertently distorted by textual variants, he appointed a committee to collect the canonical verses and destroy the variant recensions. The result was the text that is accepted to this day throughout the Muslim world.
Opposition and the End
During his caliphate, Uthman faced much of hostility from new, nominal Muslims in newly Islamic lands, who started to accuse him of not following the example Prophet and the preceding caliphs in matters concerning governance . However, the Companions of the Prophet always defended him. These accusations never changed him. He remained persistent to be a merciful governor. Even during the time when his foes attacked him, he did not use the treasury funds to shield his house or himself. As envisaged by Prophet Muhammad, Uthman’s enemies relentlessly made his governing difficult by constantly opposing and accusing him. His opponents finally plotted against him, surrounded his house, and encouraged people to kill him.
Many of his advisors asked him to stop the assault but he did not, until he was killed while reciting the Quran exactly as the Prophet had predicted. Uthman died as a martyr.
Bioteknologi adalah cabang ilmu yang mempelajari pemanfaatan makhluk hidup (bakteri, fungi, virus, dan lain-lain) maupun produk dari makhluk hidup (enzim, alkohol) dalam proses produksi untuk menghasilkan barang dan jasa.[1] Dewasa ini, perkembangan bioteknologi tidak hanya didasari pada biologi semata, tetapi juga pada ilmu-ilmu terapan dan murni lain, seperti biokimia, komputer, biologi molekular, mikrobiologi, genetika, kimia, matematika, dan lain sebagainya.[1] Dengan kata lain, bioteknologi adalah ilmu terapan yang menggabungkan berbagai cabang ilmu dalam proses produksi barang dan jasa.
Bioteknologi secara sederhana sudah dikenal oleh manusia sejak ribuan tahun yang lalu. Sebagai contoh, di bidang teknologi pangan adalah pembuatan bir, roti, maupun keju yang sudah dikenal sejak abad ke-19, pemuliaan tanaman untuk menghasilkan varietas-varietas baru di bidang pertanian, serta pemuliaan dan reproduksi hewan.[2] Di bidang medis, penerapan bioteknologi di masa lalu dibuktikan antara lain dengan penemuan vaksin, antibiotik, dan insulin walaupun masih dalam jumlah yang terbatas akibat proses fermentasi yang tidak sempurna. Perubahan signifikan terjadi setelah penemuan bioreaktor oleh Louis Pasteur.[1] Dengan alat ini, produksi antibiotik maupun vaksin dapat dilakukan secara massal.
Pada masa ini, bioteknologi berkembang sangat pesat, terutama di negara negara maju. Kemajuan ini ditandai dengan ditemukannya berbagai macam teknologi semisal rekayasa genetika, kultur jaringan, DNA rekombinan, pengembangbiakan sel induk, kloning, dan lain-lain.[3] Teknologi ini memungkinkan kita untuk memperoleh penyembuhan penyakit-penyakit genetik maupun kronis yang belum dapat disembuhkan, seperti kanker ataupun AIDS.[4] Penelitian di bidang pengembangan sel induk juga memungkinkan para penderita stroke ataupun penyakit lain yang mengakibatkan kehilangan atau kerusakan pada jaringan tubuh dapat sembuh seperti sediakala.[4] Di bidang pangan, dengan menggunakan teknologi rekayasa genetika, kultur jaringan dan DNA rekombinan, dapat dihasilkan tanaman dengan sifat dan produk unggul karena mengandung zat gizi yang lebih jika dibandingkan tanaman biasa, serta juga lebih tahan terhadap hama maupun tekanan lingkungan.[5] Penerapan bioteknologi di masa ini juga dapat dijumpai pada pelestarian lingkungan hidup dari polusi. Sebagai contoh, pada penguraian minyak bumi yang tertumpah ke laut oleh bakteri, dan penguraian zat-zat yang bersifat toksik (racun) di sungai atau laut dengan menggunakan bakteri jenis baru.[2]
Kemajuan di bidang bioteknologi tak lepas dari berbagai kontroversi yang melingkupi perkembangan teknologinya. Sebagai contoh, teknologi kloning dan rekayasa genetika terhadap tanaman pangan mendapat kecaman dari bermacam-macam golongan.
Bioteknologi secara umum berarti meningkatkan kualitas suatu organisme melalui aplikasi teknologi. Aplikasi teknologi tersebut dapat memodifikasi fungsi biologis suatu organisme dengan menambahkan gen dari organisme lain atau merekayasa gen pada organisme tersebut.[2]
Perubahan sifat Biologis melalui rekayasa genetika tersebut menyebabkan "lahirnya organisme baru" produk bioteknologi dengan sifat - sifat yang menguntungkan bagi manusia. Produk bioteknologi, antara lain[2]:
* Jagung resisten hama serangga
* Kapas resisten hama serangga
* Pepaya resisten virus
* Enzim pemacu produksi susu pada sapi
* Padi mengandung vitamin A
* Pisang mengandung vaksin hepatitis
Garis waktu bioteknologi
* 8000 SM Pengumpulan benih untuk ditanam kembali. Bukti bahwa bangsa Babilonia, Mesir, dan Romawi melakukan praktik pengembangbiakan selektif (seleksi artifisal) untuk meningkatkan kualitas ternak.
* 6000 SM Pembuatan bir, fermentasi anggur, membuat roti, membuat tempe dengan bantuan ragi.
* 4000 SM Bangsa Tionghoa membuat yogurt dan keju dengan bakteri asam laktat.
* 1500 Pengumpulan tumbuhan di seluruh dunia.
* 1665 Penemuan sel oleh Robert Hooke(Inggris) melalui mikroskop.[6]
* 1800 Nikolai I. Vavilov menciptakan penelitian komprehensif tentang pengembangbiakan hewan.
* 1880 Mikroorganisme ditemukan.
* 1856 Gregor Mendel mengawali genetika tumbuhan rekombinan.[7]
* 1865 Gregor Mendel menemukan hukum hukum dalam penyampaian sifat induk ke turunannya.[8]
* 1919 Karl Ereky, insinyur Hongaria, pertama menggunakan kata bioteknologi.
* 1970 Peneliti di AS berhasil menemukan enzim pembatas yang digunakan untuk memotong gen gen.
* 1975 Metode produksi antibodi monoklonal dikembangkan oleh Kohler dan Milstein.
* 1978 Para peneliti di AS berhasil membuat insulin dengan menggunakan bakteri yang terdapat pada usus besar.[9]
* 1980 Bioteknologi modern dicirikan oleh teknologi DNA rekombinan. Model prokariot-nya, E. coli, digunakan untuk memproduksi insulin dan obat lain, dalam bentuk manusia. Sekitar 5% pengidap diabetes alergi terhadap insulin hewan yang sebelumnya tersedia).
* 1992 FDA menyetujui makanan GM pertama dari Calgene: tomat "flavor saver".
* 2000 Perampungan Human Genome Project
Jenis
Bioteknologi memiliki beberapa jenis atau cabang ilmu yang beberapa diantaranya diasosikan dengan warna, yaitu:[10]
Bir, salah satu produk bioteknologi putih konvensional.
* Bioteknologi merah (red biotechnology) adalah cabang ilmu bioteknologi yang mempelajari aplikasi bioeknologi di bidang medis.[10] Cakupannya meliputi seluruh spektrum pengobatan manusia, mulai dari tahap preventif, diagnosis, dan pengobatan. Contoh penerapannya adalah pemanfaatan organisme untuk menghasilkan obat dan vaksin, penggunaan sel induk untuk pengobatan regeneratif, serta terapi gen untuk mengobati penyakit genetik dengan cara menyisipkan atau menggantikan gen abnomal dengan gen yang normal.[10]
* Bioteknologi putih/abu-abu (white/gray biotechnology) adalah bioteknologi yang diaplikasikan dalam industri seperti pengembangan dan produksi senyawa baru serta pembuatan sumber energi terbarukan.[10] Dengan memanipulasi mikroorganisme seperti bakteri dan khamir/ragi, enzim-enzim juga organisme-organisme yang lebih baik telah tercipta untuk memudahkan proses produksi dan pengolahan limbah industri. Pelindian (bleaching) minyak dan mineral dari tanah untuk meningkakan efisiensi pertambangan, dan pembuatan bir dengan khamir.[10]
* Bioteknologi hijau (green biotechnology) mempelajari aplikasi bioteknologi di bidang pertanian dan peternakan.[10] Di bidang pertanian, bioteknoogi telah berperan dalam menghasilkan tanaman tahan hama, bahan pangan dengan kandungan gizi lebih tinggi dan tanaman yang menghasilkan obat atau senyawa yang bermanfaat. Sementara itu, di bidang peternakan, binatang-binatang telah digunakan sebagai "bioreaktor" untuk menghasilkan produk penting contohnya kambing, sapi, domba, dan ayam telah digunakan sebagai penghasil antibodi-protein protektif yang membantu sel tubuh mengenali dan melawan senyawa asing (antigen).[10]
* Bioteknologi biru (blue biotechnology) disebut juga bioteknologi akuatik/perairan yang mengendalikan proses-proses yang terjadi di lingkungan akuatik.[10] Salah satu contoh yang paling tua adalah akuakultura, menumbuhkan ikan bersirip atau kerang-kerangan dalam kondisi terkontrol sebagai sumber makanan, (diperkirakan 30% ikan yang dikonsumsi di seluruh dunia dihasilkan oleh akuakultura). Perkembangan bioteknologi akuatik termasuk rekayasa genetika untuk menghasilkan tiram tahan penyakit dan vaksin untuk melawan virus yang menyerang salmon dan ikan yang lain. Contoh lainnya adalah salmon transgenik yang memiliki hormon pertumbuhan secara berlebihan sehingga menghasilkan tingkat pertumbuhan sangat tinggi dalam waktu singkat.[11][12]
Rekayasa genetika
Rekayasa genetika adalah prosedur dasar dalam menghasilkan suatu produk bioteknologi. Secara umum, rekayasa genetika melakukan modifikasi pada mahluk hidup melalui transfer gen dari suatu organisme ke organisme lain. Prosedur rekayasa genetika secara umum meliputi[2]:
1. Isolasi gen.
2. Memodifikasi gen sehingga fungsi biologisnya lebih baik.
3. Mentrasfer gen tersebut ke organisme baru.
4. Membentuk produk organisme transgenik.
Prosedur pembentukan organisme transgenic ada dua, yaitu:
1. Melalui proses introduksi gen
2. Melalui proses mutagenesis
Proses introduksi gen
Beberapa langkah dasar proses introduksi gen adalah[2]:
1. Membentuk sekuen gen yang diinginkan yang ditandai dengan penanda yang spesifik
2. Mentransformasi sekuen gen yang sudah ditandai ke jaringan
3. Mengkultur jaringan yang sudah mengandung gen yang ditransformasikan
4. Uji coba kultur tersebut di lapangan
Mutagenesis
Memodifikasi gen pada organisme tersebut dengan mengganti sekuen basa nitrogen pada DNA yang ada untuk diganti dengan basa nitrogen lain sehingga terjadi perubahan sifat pada organisme tersebut, contoh: semula sifatnya tidak tahan hama menjadi tahan hama. Agen mutagenesis ini biasanya dikenal dengan istilah mutagen. Beberapa contoh mutagen yang umum dipakai adalah sinar gamma (mutagen fisika) dan etil metana sulfonat (mutagen kimia).[5]
Human Genome Project
Human Genome Project adalah usaha international yang dimulai pada tahun 1990 untuk mengidentifikasi semua gen (genom) yang terdapat pada DNA dalam sel manusia dan memetakan lokasinya pada tiap kromosom manusia yang berjumlah 24.[12] Proyek ini memiliki potensi tak terbatas untuk perkembangan di bidang pendekatan diagnostik untuk mendeteksi penyakit dan pendekatan molekuler untuk menyembuhkan penyakit genetik manusia [12]
Aplikasi di Bidang Medis
Aplikasi dari bioteknologi medis sudah berlangsung lama, sebagai contoh 100 tahun lalu lintah umum digunakan untuk merawat penyakit dengan cara membiarkan lintah menyedot darah pasien bloodletting| bloodletting. Hal ini dipercaya dapat menghilangkan darah yang sudah terjangkit penyakit. Pada zaman sekarang, lintah ditemukan memiliki enzim pada kelenjar salivanya yang dapat menghancurkan gumpalan darah yang bila tidak dihancurkan dapat menyebabkan strok dan serangan jantung. Selain contoh tersebut, terdapat banyak aplikasi bioteknologi di bidang medis sebagai berikut.
Sel Punca
Sel punca adalah jenis sel khusus dengan kemampuan membentuk ulang dirinya dan dalam saat yang bersamaan membentuk sel yang terspesialisasi. Aplikasi Terapeutik Sel Stem Embrionik pada Berbagai Penyakit Degeneratif. Dalam Cermin Dunia Kedokteran, meskipun kebanyakan sel dalam tubuh seperti jantung maupun hati telah terbentuk khusus untuk memenuhi fungsi tertentu, stem cell selalu berada dalam keadaan tidak terdiferensiasi sampai ada sinyal tertentu yang mengarahkannya berdiferensiasi menjadi sel jenis tertentu. Kemampuannya untuk berproliferasi bersamaan dengan kemampuannya berdiferensiasi menjadi jenis sel tertentu inilah yang membuatnya unik . Karakteristik biologis dan diferensiasi stem cell fokus pada mesenchymal stem cell. Cermin Dunia Kedokteran
Aplikasi dari sel punca diantaranya adalah pengobatan infark jantung yaitu menggunakan sel punca yang berasal dari sumsum tulang untuk mengganti sel-sel pembuluh yang rusak (neovaskularisasi). Aplikasi terapeutik sel stem embrionik pada berbagai penyakit degeneratif. Cermin Dunia Kedokteran . Selain itu, sel punca diduga dapat digunakan untuk pengobatan diabetes tipe I dengan cara mengganti sel pankreas yang sudah rusak dengan sel pankreas hasil diferensiasi sel punca. Hal ini dilakukan untuk menghindari reaksi penolakan yang dapat terjadi seperti pada transplantasi pankreas dari binatang. Sejauh ini percobaan telah berhasil dilakukan pada mencit
Anfield is a football stadium in the district of Anfield, in Liverpool, England. Built in 1884, the stadium has been home to Liverpool F.C. since they were formed in 1892 as a result of the original tenants Everton F.C. leaving the ground.
The stadium currently comprises four stands: Spion Kop, Main Stand, Centenary Stand and Anfield Road, giving a total capacity of 45,362. The record attendance at the stadium is 61,905 which was set in a match between Liverpool and Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1952. This record was set prior to the ground's conversion to an all-seater stadium in 1994; the changes, which were a result of the Taylor Report, greatly reduced capacity. Notable features of the stadium include two gates named after former Liverpool managers: the Bob Paisley gate and the Bill Shankly gate. In addition, a statue of Shankly is situated outside the stadium. Anfield's public transport links include rail and bus services but it lacks dedicated parking facilities.
Anfield has hosted many international matches at the senior level, including England matches. The ground was also used as a venue during Euro 96. Earlier in its history the stadium was also used as a venue for different events, such as boxing and tennis matches. The ground is due to host matches during the 2015 Rugby World Cup, with pool matches taking place at the stadium.
There are plans to replace Anfield with a new 60,000 capacity stadium in Stanley Park. The stadium was first planned in May 2002 with a provisional opening date of August 2005, but subsequent problems with securing funding for the project as well as the state of the financial market since 2008, combined with disagreement between the club's American co-owners makes it certain as of 2010 that football will continue to be played at Anfield for at least a few more years.[3]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
* 2 Structures and facilities
o 2.1 Kop Stand
o 2.2 Main Stand
o 2.3 Centenary Stand
o 2.4 Anfield Road Stand
o 2.5 The Pitch
* 3 Future
* 4 Other uses
* 5 Records
* 6 Transport
* 7 References
* 8 External links
[edit] History
Flagpole in front of football ground
The topmast rescued from SS Great Eastern.
Opened in 1884, Anfield was originally owned by a Mr. Orrell, a fellow brewer and friend of John Houlding, president of Everton FC. Everton, who previously played at Priory Road, were in need of a new venue, due to the noise produced from the crowd on match-days.[4] Orrell let the land to the club for a donation to the local hospital. Everton's landlord changed when John Houlding purchased the land from Orrell in 1885 charging direct rent.
The first match played at Anfield was between Everton and Earlestown on 28 September 1884, which Everton won 5–0.[5] During Everton's tenure at the stadium, stands were erected for some of the 8,000 plus spectators regularly attending matches, although the ground was capable of holding around 20,000 spectators and occasionally did. The ground was considered of international standard at the time, playing host to the British Home Championship match between England and Ireland in 1889.
Anfield's first league match was played on 8 September 1888, between Everton and Accrington. Everton quickly improved as a team and three years later in the 1890–91 season became Anfield's first league champions.[6]
Steps leading to the pitch
A dispute emerged between Houlding and the Everton FC committee, over how the club was to be owned and run. This dispute escalated from the full purchase of the land at Anfield from minor land owner John Orrell, into a disagreement over how the club was run. This culminated with Everton moving to Goodison Park.[4] Houlding was left with an empty stadium, and decided to form a new club to occupy it. The team was called Liverpool F.C and Athletic Grounds Ltd, and their first match at Anfield was a friendly played in front of 200 people on 1 September 1892, against Rotherham Town, which they won 7–1.[7][8]
Liverpool's first Lancashire League match at Anfield was played on 9 September 1893, against Lincoln City, Liverpool won 4–0 in front of 5,000 spectators.[9] A new stand was constructed in 1895, capable of holding 3,000 spectators, on the site of the present Main Stand. The stand had a distinctive red and white gable, and was similar to the main stand at Newcastle United's ground St James' Park.[10] Another stand was constructed at the Anfield Road end in 1903, built from timber and corrugated iron. After Liverpool had won their second League championship in 1906, a new stand was built along the Walton Breck Road. Local journalist Ernest Edwards, who was the sports editor of newspapers the Liverpool Daily Post and Echo, christened it the Spion Kop; it was named after a famous hill in South Africa where a local regiment had suffered heavy losses during the Boer War in 1900. More than 300 men had died, many of them from Liverpool, as the British army attempted to capture the strategic hilltop. Around the same period a stand was also built along Kemlyn Road.[11]
The ground remained much the same until 1928 when the Kop was redesigned and extended to hold 30,000 spectators, all standing, with a roof erected as well.[12] Many stadia in England had stands named after the Spion Kop, however Anfield's was the largest Kop in the country at the time. It was able to hold more supporters than some entire football grounds.[13] The topmast of the SS Great Eastern, one of the first iron ships, was rescued from the ship breaking yard at nearby Rock Ferry, and was hauled up the Everton Valley by a team of horses to be erected alongside the new Kop where it still stands today, serving as a flag pole.[14]
Hillsborough memorial (left) and the Shankly Gates (right)
Floodlights were installed and on 30 October 1957, they were switched on for the first time for a match against Everton, to commemorate the 75-year anniversary of the Liverpool County Football Association.[13] In 1963 the old Kemlyn Road stand was replaced by a cantilevered stand, able to hold 6,700 spectators and built at a cost of £350,000. Two years later alterations were made at the Anfield Road end, turning it into a large covered standing area. The biggest redevelopment came in 1973, when the old Main Stand was demolished and a new one was constructed. At the same time, the pylon floodlights were pulled down and new lights installed along the top of the Kemlyn Road and Main Stands. The new stand was officially opened on 10 March 1973, by the Duke of Kent. In the 1980s the paddock in front of the Main Stand was turned into seating, and in 1982 seats were introduced at the Anfield Road end. The Shankly Gates were erected in 1982, a tribute to former manager Bill Shankly; Shankly's widow Nessie unlocked them for the first time on 26 August 1982.[14] Across the Shankly Gates are the words You'll Never Walk Alone, the title of the Gerry & The Pacemakers' hit song, which Liverpool fans adopted as the club's anthem.[15]
Coloured seats and a police-room were added to the Kemlyn Road stand in 1987. After the Hillsborough disaster in 1989, the Taylor Report recommended that all grounds in the country should be converted into all-seater grounds by May 1994.[16] A second tier was added to the Kemlyn Road stand in 1992, turning it into a double decker layout. It included executive boxes and function suites as well as 11,000 seating spaces. Plans to expand the stand had been made earlier, with the club buying up houses on Kemlyn Road during the 1970s and 1980s. Plans were put on hold until 1990 because two sisters, Joan and Nora Mason, refused to sell their house. When the club reached an agreement with the sisters in 1990, the expansion plans were put into action.[17] The stand was officially opened on 1 September 1992, by UEFA president Lennart Johansson and re-named the Centenary Stand. The Kop was rebuilt in 1994 after the recommendations of the Taylor Report and became all seated; although it is still a single tier, the capacity was significantly reduced to 12,390.[13]
Statue of a man with his arms held aloft
The statue of Bill Shankly outside Anfield
On 4 December 1997, a statue of Bill Shankly, created from bronze, was unveiled at the visitors' centre in front of the Kop. Standing at over 8 feet (2.4 m) tall, the statue depicts Shankly wearing a fan's scarf around his neck, in a familiar pose he adopted when receiving applause from fans. Inscribed on the statue are the words: "Bill Shankly – He Made the People Happy".[18] The Hillsborough memorial is situated alongside the Shankly Gates, and is always decorated with flowers and tributes to the 96 people who died as a result of the disaster. At the centre of the memorial is an eternal flame, signifying that those who died will never be forgotten.[19] The most recent change to Anfield came in 1998 when the new two-tier Anfield Road end was opened. The stand has however encountered a number of problems since its redevelopment. At the beginning of the 1999–2000 season a series of support poles and stanchions had to be brought in to give extra stability to the top tier of the stand. During Ronnie Moran's testimonial against Celtic many fans complained of movement of the top tier. At the same time that the stanchions were inserted the executive seating area was expanded by two rows in the main stand, lowering the capacity for seating in the paddock.[20]
[edit] Structures and facilities
diagram of a stadium
Outline of Anfield
The pitch is surrounded by four all-seater stands, the Anfield Road end, the Centenary Stand, the Kop and the Main Stand, all of which are covered. The Anfield Road end and Centenary Stand are two-tiered, while the Kop and Main Stand are single-tiered.[21] Entry to the stadium is gained by radio-frequency identification (RFID) smart cards rather than the traditional manned turnstile. This system, used in all 80 turnstiles around Anfield, was introduced in 2005.[22]
[edit] Kop Stand
Capacity: 12,409
The Kop Stand
The Kop was originally built as an uncovered terrace capable of holding 30,000 spectators, although a roof was added in 1928. However, following the Hillsborough disaster and the subsequent Taylor Report, the terracing was demolished in 1994 and replaced with a new all-seater stand holding 12,409, with nine disabled spaces. It is currently the largest single tier seated stand in Europe.[23]
[edit] Main Stand
Capacity: 12,277
The Main Stand
The Main Stand houses the director's box and the player's dressing rooms. The capacity of the stand is 12,277 seats consisting of 9,597 main stand seats, 2,409 available in the paddock, 177 in the directors box, 54 for the press box, and 40 disabled spaces.[24]
Above the stairs that lead down to the pitch hangs a sign stating "THIS IS ANFIELD". Its purpose is to both intimidate the opposition and to bring those who touch it good luck. Accordingly, Liverpool players and coaching staff reach up and place one or both hands on it as they pass underneath.[25]
[edit] Centenary Stand
Capacity: 11,762
The Centenary Stand
The Centenary Stand was originally named the Kemlyn Road stand before the addition of a second tier. After the expansion was completed in 1992, the stand was renamed to mark the club's hundredth anniversary.
The capacity of the stand is 11,762, with 4,600 spaces on the upper tier and 6,814 on the lower tier, while 348 spaces are also available in the executive boxes within the stand.[26]
[edit] Anfield Road Stand
Capacity: 9,074
The Anfield Road Stand
The Anfield Road stand is used to house the away fans during matches. Originally a simple single-tier stand with multi-coloured seats, a second tier has been added to the original stand, increasing the capacity to 9,074, consisting of 2,654 spaces on the upper tier, 6,391 on the lower tier and 29 spaces for disabled persons.[26]
The Anfield Road End was rebuilt in 1965 and fitted with a roof for the very first time, and received seating in 1982. A further revamp was completed in 1998 which gave the stand additional seating.[1]
There are 32 total spaces available to accommodate wheelchair users; 22 spaces are available for general sale, eight spaces are allocated to the away supporters, and another two spaces are kept unused for emergency circumstances. There are 36 spaces available for the visually impaired, which are situated in the paddock area of the Main Stand, with space for one personal assistant. A headset with full commentary is also provided.[24]
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